论文总字数：30601字

摘 要

在商务谈判中，使用巧妙的语言技巧对于顺利进行商务谈判至关重要。人们普遍认为，谈判是一个过程，在这个过程中，参与者就反映他们之间关系的主张进行谈判和交流。所有这些都是通过语言来实现的，一般来说，语言策略对谈判结果的确定起着非常重要的作用。本文提出了有输赢谈判和双赢谈判的语言策略，包括最后通牒、威胁、礼貌和幽默等。

关键词：中美文化差异；商务谈判；语言技巧

Contents

1. Introduction 1

2. Literature Review 1

3. Cultural Factors of Business Negotiation 2

3.1 Culture Differences between China and the West 2

3.2 Impacts of Culture Differences on Business Negotiation 6

4. Study on Language Strategies in Cross-culture Business Negotiation 9

4.1 Language Strategies for Win-win Negotiation 9

4.2 Language Strategies for Win-lose Negotiation 13

5. Conclusion 15

Works Cited 17

1. Introduction

The development of the world economy makes business negotiations between countries much more frequent. Therefore, when dealing with a business negotiation, it is important to use suitable language skills. Generally，it is believed that business negotiation is a process in which participants communicate with each other, reflecting the relationship between them .And almost all the business negotiations will be successful when suitable language skills are made use of. As a result, language skills are also significant in the outcomes of business negotiations. This paper puts forward language skills of win-win negotiations including politeness and humor. This paper also puts forward language skills of win-lose negotiations including ultimatum and threat. The two language skills is used in cross-cultural business negotiations. (Shen 148)Sino-American cross-cultural differences are taken as the research object.

2. Literature Review

Firstly, some people adopted the emic approach, which is culturally specific. Tian xin"s " Analysis of the Impact of Cultural Differences between China and the West on International Business Negotiations " as well as other books and news, use this method to find practical methods for individual cultural negotiations. There are two kinds in the study of the cultural methods of negotiation.In the first part, people explain and analyze the negotiation methods of specific cultures.

Secondly, scholars have developed frameworks and checklists that transcend cultural application. For example, Cross-Cultural Business Negotiations by Donald W. Hendon, Rebecca Angeles Hendon, and Paul Herbig; and International Business Negotiation by Pervez N. Ghauri and Jean-Claude Usunier. A second approach is cross-cultural and comparative, or the etic approach.

People are easy to blame others from their own cultural perspectives, and western scholars are no exception. This paper tends to provide a Chinese perspective. But in fact, this is the way the Chinese establish relations. This is the basis for trust. When negotiating with someone you don"t know, the Chinese follow the same pattern. There are references to Chinese negotiating styles. However, there are many fixed ideas and misunderstandings. For example, many Western scholars such as Donald W. Hengdeng, Laibeiqia Hairuisi·hengdeng, and Baoluo·hawei have argued that the delay in Chinese negotiations is purely a tactic. Negotiators from Asian countries like Japan follow the same pattern.

3. Cultural Factors of Business Negotiation

3.1 Culture Differences between China and the West

Firstly, the basic spirit of the Chinese culture is as follows. Chinese culture is formed by more than 5,000 years of art, philosophy, political progress. However, Chinese people focus on Confucianism which fundamentally influences the thoughts and behaviors of China and East Asia. Chinese people believed Confucianism was the most important to their daily life and corporate culture. While Chinese culture is proud of the three major philosophical traditions of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism, Confucianism can represent the Chinese way of life in the past 2000 years mostly.

Confucianism was a Chinese philosophical tradition 2,500 years ago. The influence of Confucianism on the Chinese style of business can be studied from the six basic Confucian values: (1) Moral cultivation; (2) Importance of interpersonal relationships; (3) Family and group orientation; (4) Respect for age and hierarchy; (5) Avoidance of conflict and need for harmony; (6) Concept of face.

(1) Moral cultivation.

In Confucian tradition, following one"s own language is a moral virtue. Confucianism emphasizes people"s self-cultivation and lifelong learning. It is considered a great dishonor not to obey his own words.

(2) Importance of Interpersonal Relationships

Confucianism is the practical doctrine of human relations and behavior. These are the three basic guides and the five through certain virtues: seeing the human world, the dominant and subjective, the father and son, the husband and wife, the older and younger brothers, and the friends of the predecessor and the younger generation. The Chinese term for Guanyin, relationship, contact, or contact method is the main mechanism of Chinese social psychology. In order to gain respect and loyalty from their descendants, the predecessors must have compassion and compassion, and vice versa. This can be explained by the fact that individuals can have unlimited requirements for each other.

For the Chinese, culturally speaking, they have much inter-dependence on one another.

(3) Family and group orientation.

In Chinese society, the family is the most basic and important social unit. In China, which has lacked a well-functioning legal system for thousands of years, Chinese families have assumed many social responsibilities. Any independent intent to compete with others and to differ from others is destructive. That was actually considered selfish or immoral. People are not seen as independent. Therefore, the meaning of life is defined by the community to which they belong. The interests of the family, the collective, the organization, the society, or the state are often superior to those of any individual.

(4) Respect for age and hierarchy.

The center of the Confucian system is the family structure, the political structure, and the linear class that dominates the supernatural world. This hierarchy consists of defined roles, responsibilities, rituals, and habits that control the interaction between owners of designated positions at all levels. In the Confucian tradition, age is wisdom and must be respected. Through orderly relationships, everyone has the obligation to contribute to the harmony and stability of society, and we respect them. According to Confucianism, only as defined by their position in a layered society can social stability and coordination be achieved by their due diligence.

Secondly, the basic spirit of the Western culture is as follows. The terms “Western” are used to describe primarily people of Anglo-Saxon ethnic origins. It is true there are subtle, but distinct cultural differences among the Anglo-Saxon countries and regions, the UK, Ireland, USA, Australia, New Zealand and Anglophone Canada. However, since these countries and regions possess common cultural roots and the differences among themselves will appear trivial when compared with the Chinese culture, it may be justifiable to talk about an Anglo-Saxon culture pervading these above-mentioned regions. However, American culture is considered to be the flagship of modern "Western culture." Because it is the dominant religion of about 1 billion people in the world, Christianity must come first. "In the United States, 86 per cent of the total population is expected to be Christians."

(1) Individualism

Most religious scholars agree that "Christianity has discovered individuals." In other words, the Western concept of personal importance may be partially related to Christianity. God has a special relationship with everyone. They see, listen, reward them, and then punish them. And, Christian theology, God created that, and the world begins with the premise that reality has meaning. God created them in his image, so man is important. In a culture that values individualism, Christianity is likely to be a complete religion. Individualism is a representative of Western culture. Individualism is a term used to express moral, political, or social expectations, emphasizing the importance of individual independence and personal freedom. He"s important to everyone. The Christian God is a personal God who wishes to have something to do with his own creation. Individualists promote the unrestricted exercise of personal goals and desires. Therefore, individualism is the opposite of collectivism, which is more emphasized by collectivism, social or national goals than individual goals. Whether or not they come from society, the State or other organizations or institutions, they are opposed to any external interference with individual choices.

(2) Materialism

Indeed, people think they are successful when they have much money in Western societies. For most Westerners, materialism is an indispensable part of life. They often pursue self-realization and status by obtaining material objects. For Westerners, achievement and efficiency are their main values. In this sense, material happiness is the perfect performance of their performance, thus improving their work efficiency. For Westerners, the pursuit of material happiness and physical comfort is very important to achieve their self-esteem and social awareness. Therefore, products that can promote people"s lives have been widely accepted by European and American customers. Products such as private cars have always become a symbol of identity. Therefore, in the West, reality is often a material reality. Physical ownership is usually the standard by which Westerners judge a person"s ability and value.

(3) Competition

Even if they were playing games, they would be more attractive than the people who sat next to them in the class. Laleisamoa and Richa suggest that Western culture embodies competition and independence. Competition is a part of Western life after early childhood. It is generally believed that Western people"s competitive pressure in life begins at an early age and continues until they work and retire. They have a character that encourages competition. These are ranked, classified by level, and evaluated to know whether they are "highest." In sports and work, they are emphasized the importance of "first". Westerners regard many lives as competition for success. This part became their legacy, and they said they had to overcome the wild when they moved to the New World. Westerners are ready to compete for great success. Learning to be competitive is an important part of growing up in the West. In order to run successfully, people must compete with others.

3.2 Impacts of Culture Differences on Business Negotiation

Firstly, culture differences have an impact on goals and approaches of negotiation. They see the contract as a decisive set of fears and obligations that bind the parties strictly and determine their subsequent interaction. If culture is different, the purpose of the negotiation itself will be different. For most Western cadres, the purpose of negotiations is first and foremost to reach a contract between the parties.

Although the written form of contact illustrates the relationship, the essence of the transaction is the relationship itself. Unlike the Western way of dealing with negotiations, China prefers to practice the methods of negotiation. Chinese people often think that the purpose of negotiations is not to sign contracts, but to create bilateral relations.

As we have discussed earlier, Chinese culture pays more attention to the collectivism and personal relationship. Thus, Chinese culture can be regarded as relationship-oriented.

They treat the contract as a strict detention of the person concerned, as a decisive set of fears and obligations that determine the interaction after that. If culture is different, the purpose of the negotiation itself is also different. For most Western cadres, the highest priority in the negotiation is to complete the contract between the parties.

Although the written contact means the relationship, the essence of the transaction is the relationship itself. Unlike the Western way of negotiating, China likes to practice it. Chinese people often think that the purpose of negotiations is not to sign contracts, but to build bilateral relations.

In addition, the unusual emphasis on Chinese places in friendly relations can be understood from the context of Guanxi. It also refers to the relationship between two people or organizations, including potential mutual obligations, guarantees and understanding, and governs China"s attitude towards long-term social and commercial relations. In China, business transactions are mostly conducted through bonds or ganxi, which maintain an informal system of exchanging goods or services through networking.

When Westerners form relationships, they mainly pursue Kansai people"s interests, but Kansai people"s interests. In the West, the relationship is described as a contract. Westerners use interaction as a tool or tool for other purposes. As a result, the driving forces behind these are rated as higher than trust, respect and long-term relationships. The Chinese negotiating strategy is to establish a relationship characterized by friendship. People in the West are not responsible for the network, but regard all relationships as contracts. The relationship between people is just temporary like a contract, so as long as one party chooses, they may be broken at any time.

We can see the difference between China and the West in the following negotiation case.

For Chinese people, negotiations are based on the relationship between the negotiating parties. If a relationship is established, then the contract is determined at a distance from the formation of friendship between the two parties. In other words, China"s relationship mode is to attach importance to long-term relationship development.

Just like the above case has mentioned, when the Chinese has built relationships with the American buyer, they quickly agreed on the other five products in just four days, which can be compared with the first purchase took an entire week. In contrast, for Westerners, negotiations are parties who focus their hearts and purposes on the transaction itself and work hard to reach the final conclusion of the transaction. One of the Chinese negotiators explained:

Therefore, in the method of negotiating, it is generally found that the negotiation is to develop commercial transactions for the purpose of reaching the long-term mutual interests of the Chinese people. Moreover, in order to understand each other, the Chinese often arrange to eat, drink, visit places of interest to promote friendship. For example, in Chinese negotiations, Chinese people usually ask each other after the other"s health, welfare, children"s education, and general welfare or local events. In a very large number of cases, the stage of negotiation is reached only when these preparatory activities are under way.

But for Westerners, negotiation is a problem-solving activity. Because of their tendency to negotiate tasks, Westerners are not interested in the success or failure of interpersonal relationships. In fact, they see their relationships as fortuitous and perhaps as part of the negotiation process.

Their goal is to achieve specific requirements that are not related to short-and long-term objectives. Friendship is considered superficial, temporary and temporary. There are no long-term goals. Westerners attach more importance to achieving good goals than to building close relationships.

Secondly, culture differences have an impact on composition of the negotiating team. The size of the negotiating team and the criteria for the selection of negotiators vary mainly according to the cultural background of the two parties. Due to the team culture and team cooperation preferences, the Chinese team has a large tendency. The number of negotiators considered to be applicable to negotiations varies from culture to culture. Chinese large negotiating teams are usually very well adjusted to operate as a unified unit. In the negotiation, the team members responsible for the task will be divided up. Moreover, the negotiator D will adjust the group as well as the Chinese counter section. Chinese generally send large teams, not only functional experts and managers, but also representatives of local self-government groups, local self-government groups and state authorities.

Moreover, American negotiators have been given the authority to make decisions without fear of unanimity and consultation.

The chief negotiator of the Chinese side is usually one of the leaders of the company, or an official form the government. Although they may know little about the technical specifics, he owns the power to make decisions. However, Americans send the talented and experienced negotiator with the most profound expertise as their chief negotiator. Due to the fact that American typically chooses their negotiators on the basis of their substantive knowledge of the issues at the table and on their negotiating experience, the gender or age of the negotiator can be incidental, therefore, in most cases, the sales manager will be assigned the role of chief negotiator for a business negotiation in America. In this case, they will observe the reaction of the technicians through their negotiating experience in the country, noting that they may have little decision-making power.

Thirdly, culture differences have an impact on the communication style. Different groups communicate in different ways and are more comfortable with one or another form of communications. Some groups rely on verbal communications, others on nonverbal such as gestures, space, and silence. Some groups rely on one method, others mixed. With the diversity of communication methods, the context of communication will become more complex, and more attention needs to be paid to understanding this context.

Cross-cultural communication can be both an intriguing and taxing exercise, due to its propensity to incur misunderstandings. The facility of language is no assurance of complete cultural insight. All too often, we have seen how words may be misunderstood, gestures misinterpreted, and meanings mishandled. The westerns’ communication style tends to be direct and verbal; while the Chinese tend to use extensive indirect and non-verbal means in their communications.

4. Study on Language Strategies in Cross-culture Business Negotiation

4.1 Language Strategies for Win-lose Negotiation

Firstly, ultimatum is a language strategy for win-lose negotiation. The interests of outcome negotiations can be regarded as "certain cakes." The more benefits one party receives, the less the other party"s interests will be. Standard economic analysis assumes that economic subjects have reasonable, selfish, anxious, and unchanging tastes. In negotiations, in order to reach a negotiator"s strategy of expressing his intentions, the final statement is a means often used in the event of defeat. Therefore, parties in a defeated situation will benefit as much as possible. Hence sellers and buyers are likely to take advantage of his/her superior strategic position such as using ultimatum:

A developed a final notification strategy whereby B refused to negotiate with B on the ground of B concessions if B did not accept the price. B then generated new hypotheses, which were caused by the interaction of existing hypotheses, in which A used the strategy of the final announcement and the new message: If he wants to reach an agreement with A, he must make concessions.

In fact, parties in a superior position over each other have adopted a final notification strategy in order to often gain more benefits in the outcome of negotiations. For example,

By choosing an ultimatum strategy, A strengthened B"s excellent position for failing to ship in time, and A agreed with B"s cognitive effects. Although the parties did not clearly state their position, both agreed that B would accept the final notification.

Sometimes the threatened party refuses to make concessions based on the balance between the advantages and disadvantages of acceptance and rejection. However, the atmosphere of cooperation between the two parties disappears, and as a result, it will bring harm to the establishment of good results for both parties. Then, there may be a result of failure. Therefore, if negotiators are particularly interested in maintaining a long-term relationship, the strategy of final notification should be used with caution.

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