A Contrastive Study of Kinship Terms

in Chinese and English from a Pragmatic Perspective

By Xiang Maocuo

Department of English

School of Liberal Arts

Nanjing University of Information Science amp; Technology

May, 2018

Acknowledgements

It took two months for me to finish writing this paper and encountered many difficulties in the process of writing this thesis but all were solved with the help of teachers and classmates. Here, I would like to express my thanks to those who have helped me with my thesis. In particular, I would like to thank my supervisor, Mr. Zhang Houzhen for his unselfish guidance and help to revise my thesis. Also thanks should go to my classmates and friends for giving me a lot of inspiration in writing this thesis. Last but not the least I want to thank my parents, their support and encouragement will always be the biggest driving force behind my progress.

Contents

1. Introduction 2

2. Differences in English and Chinese Kinship Terms 2

2.1 A brief Introduction to English and Chinese Kinship Terms 3

2.2 Differences in English and Chinese Kinship Terms 3

2.2.1 Distinction between Young and Old Order 3

2.2.2 Differences between Blood Relations and In-laws 4

2.2.3 Differences between Paternal Side and Maternal Side 4

3. Comparison and Analysis of Characteristics of Chinese and English Kinship Terms 5

3.1 Complexity and Simplicity 5

3.2 Grade Differences and Equality Concepts 5

3.3 Sexism in Kinship Terms 6

3.4 The Generalization of Family Appellations and Social appellations 6

4. The Cultural Factors in Chinese and English Kinship Appellation System 7

4.1 Different Political Cultures 7

4.2 Different Economic Models 8

4.3 Different Patriarchal Systems   9

5. Comparison of Chinese and English Kinship Terms from the Perspective of Pragmatics 9

5.1 Similarities in Pragmatic Function between English and Chinese Appellations 9

5.1.1 Acting Function 9

5.1.2 Instruction Function 10

5.1.3 Function of Expressing Emotion 10

5.2 Differences in Pragmatic Functions between English and Chinese Appellations 10

5.2.1. Differences in the Degree of Intimacy 10

5.2.2 The Difference between Modest Title and Honorific Title 11

5.2.3 Differences in concept of generations 11

6. Conclusion 12

References 13

A Contrastive Study of Kinship Terms

in Chinese and English from a Pragmatic Perspective

Xiang Maocuo

Department of English

School of Liberal Arts

Nanjing University of Information Science amp; Technology

Abstract: Appellation is an indispensable part in the field of sociolinguistics. Due to the different political, historical economic and cultural backgrounds of different ethnic groups, the developments of kinship terms are also different. The kinship systems in English and Chinese have their own specific culture connotation. This thesis analyzes the differences between English and Chinese kinship terms from four aspects: the constitution and characteristics of kinship system of English and Chinese relatives, the cultural factors concealed in kinship terms in English and Chinese, and pragmatic social and cultural factors in English and Chinese relative terms. In order to reveal the cultural connotations implied by Chinese and Western cultures and to promote cultural exchanges, this thesis compares and analyzes the difference and similarities in English and Chinese from the perspective of sociolinguistics and cultural linguistics.

Key words: English and Chinese kinship terms, Chinese - English contrast, pragmatic differences, cultural differences

摘要：称谓语是社会语言学领域中不可或缺的一部分，由于不同民族的政治、经济、历史和文化背景的不同，使得亲属称谓的发展轨迹也不同，英汉语言的亲属称谓体系蕴含着其特定的文化内涵。本文从英汉亲属称谓系统的构成、特点的比较、英汉亲属称谓中隐蔽的深层文化以及从语用学角度对比英汉亲属称谓语四个方面分析英汉亲属称谓的差异并探讨了导致英汉亲属称谓差异的社会文化因素。为此，本文从社会语言学和文化语言学的视角方面对它们进行比较分析，以揭示中西文化所隐含的文化底蕴，以促进文化交流。

关键词：英汉亲属称谓; 汉英对比; 语用差异; 文化差异

1. Introduction

Appellation is a form of language that people use to represent the relationship between each other and to distinguish people's identity, status, and occupation. The appellation of relatives is a social norm that reflects people's kinship and represents these kinships. As the accumulation of various national cultures, the kinship appellation can best embody the cultural characteristics of the nation in communication. Therefore, in daily verbal communication, the kinship appellations are not only performed under specific cultural conventions, but also more stringent than other appellations in their cultural conventions. This established cultural convention requires that verbal communicators have the ability to quickly determine what appellation needs to be used in a particular context. If you deviate from a specific cultural convention, it is difficult to correctly use the kinship terms. This is especially true of the Chinese kinship terms. Because China has been known as a state of etiquette since ancient times, the appellation of Chinese relatives has been numerous and complex, rich and colorful. Besides, it also has its profound cultural background. The principles and cultural norms it adheres to are also particularly strict. Different peoples in different nations have different languages, and the names of relatives in different ethnic languages ​​are also different. For example, the relative names of Chinese and English have their own characteristics in terms of content, structure, and quantity, and they are very different.

2. Differences in English and Chinese Kinship Terms

Appellation is a linguistic phenomenon as well as a social cultural phenomenon. In terms of kinship terms, there are great differences between English and Chinese. They belong to different appellation systems, reflecting different cultural customs. Appellation refers to people's names derived from relatives and other related relationships. The area of thought, which is formed by the beliefs and expectations and shared by the blood and in-laws and related to each other, is kinship. The use of these kinship terms which plus the rules of use constitutes a system of cultural kinship (Harris, 1983). The appellation system in each language contains its certain cultural connotations, reflecting patriarchal idea, religious idea, value orientation, and ethics. Therefore, the comparative analysis of different appellation systems in comparative linguistics has great significance. In the process of cross-cultural communication, we must also consider the form of expressions and their differences in English and Chinese languages, making language communication in accordance with pragmatic rules.

2.1 A brief Introduction to English and Chinese Kinship Terms

According to statistics, there are only about 20 relative names in English, and there are as many as 100 relative names in Chinese. It can be said that the kinship appellation system in Chinese is the most complicated and most extensive family name appellation system in existing languages. In contrast, the English kinship appellation system is simple, broad, and more general. In general, the Chinese kinship appellation sets up a title for all relatives in each blood bond, whereas English uses a title to classify relatives in a certain class. Some scholars have described the system of Chinese relatives as a description system. As the name implies, it is detailed and exhaustive. As a system of classification, the classification of English relatives means that it has a high degree of generality, highlights core family members, and only separates parents, brothers, and sisters. Other relatives are collectively referred to.

2.2 Differences in English and Chinese Kinship Terms

The concrete embodiment of the differences between English and Chinese kinship appellations can be simply summed up in three categories: 1. An orderly distinction between the young and the very young; 2. The distinction between blood relatives and in-laws; 3. The difference of patriarchal and matriarchal. These three types have some overlap, but basically cover the difference in the kinship terms between the two.

2.2.1 Distinction between Young and Old Order

China's traditional families are the extended family, with the third or even the fourth generation living together. Under the influence of the patriarchal system, the family must strictly abide by the traditional order. First of all, the seniority of each member within the family has a very strict division. Second, even in the same generation, we must make a distinction based on their age. For example: In ancient Chinese, there was a distinction between the so-called “numbers in sequence of brothers”. In the same generation, brothers and younger brothers, sisters and younger sisters should be distinguished; when the relatives of the same appellation are more than one person, they should be preceded by an ordinal number to distinguish them, such as “big sister” and “second brother”. The elders can directly call the names of their juniors. However, it is not allowed for younger generations to call their elders’ names. In English-speaking countries, kinship terms do not distinguish between long and young, so the title is much simpler. For example, “elder sister” and “younger sister” only correspond to one word “sister”. “Elder brother” and “younger brother” only correspond to one word “brother”. In addition, in Britain and the United States, family members often use the nickname based on the name or initials as a title, which allows juniors to call their names directly to their elders. Because in their cultural conception, the use of such titles is a reflection of the closeness, harmony, and friendship of each other.

2.2.2 Differences between Blood Relations and In-laws

Blood relatives, as the name suggests, refer to those born and related relatives. Indigenous marriage refers to the establishment of kinship through marriage, which is the formation of acquired. After thousands of years of feudal society, the patriarchal concept of the Han people is extremely strong. In the feudal society, the typical structure of the extended family is based on the blood relationship within the family. For the Chinese, uncles(伯父), uncles（舅父）, aunts（姨母）, and aunts(姑母) are relatives with whom they have a blood relationship, but their corresponding spouses—aunts (伯母), aunts（舅母）, uncles（姨父）, and uncles（姑父）have no kinship relatives with him. In short, Chinese culture has a strict distinction between brothers(兄弟连襟), sisters(姐妹妯娌)，uncles and aunts（伯叔姑婶）. It is very complicated. In English-speaking countries, there is no distinction between so-called blood affinity and in-laws. As shown in Figure1.

Figure1. Affinity relationship table

2.2.3 Differences between Paternal Side and Maternal Side

The traditional China is a paternal society. Historically speaking, men are considered inferior to women. In Chinese, the distinction between patrilineal male relatives is very clear and detailed, but the title of matrilineal relatives is very simple. The brothers who distinguished their fathers by “uncle（伯伯） and uncle（叔叔）” also distinguished their spouses by “aunt（伯母） and aunt（婶婶）”. However, the sisters of fathers were collectively referred to as “aunts（姑姑）.” The mother’s brothers were collectively referred to as “uncle（舅舅）” and the mothers and sisters were collectively referred to as “aunts（姨母）.” This point is even more pronounced among peers. The offspring of fathers and brothers have a special morpheme called “Tang”, but the offspring of the father’s sister and the offspring of his mother’s brother and sister are generally classified into one category—a cousin (brother, sister), “Tang” is a symbol of the family in the old saying. “Biao” means “outside”, just like a guest. In English-speaking countries, the family is based on the relationship between husband and wife, so the family name does not distinguish between paternal side and maternal side. For example, brothers whose parents are collective are referred to as “uncle” and they use “aunt” to refer to a sister or brother’s spouse.

3. Comparison and Analysis of Characteristics of Chinese and English Kinship Terms

3.1 Complexity and Simplicity

Compared with the English relatives' appellations, the main features of the Chinese family appellation system are: complex and meticulous, strict specification, and accurate description. The complexity first manifests itself in the difference between Chinese and English blood affinity and in-laws, the difference between father and mother and between young and old order. What are the root that causes behind this feature of kinship terms in Chinese? The history of feudal society in China has been long and the feudal patriarchal system has been based on blood relations. This makes the concept of blood relatives very important in the Chinese traditional family model. At the same time, the concept of blood relative pays attention to the distinction between intimacy and estrangement, and pays attention to the difference between the inside and the outside also the elder and the young. The Western family has a simple core family structure. When children reach adulthood, they live independently and their concept of kinship is relatively weak. There is no strong sense of family in the English. Therefore, the relatives of English relatives are relatively broad and fuzzy and they are generally simple.

3.2 Grade Differences and Equality Concepts

From the Chinese appellations of relatives, we can see that it implied the unequal relations within the clan. This is because Chinese feudal rites emphasized that “the courtier is subject to the emperor; the son is subject to the father; the wife is subject to the husband” and the traditional concept is based on the ancestry of the father's lineage, emphasizing the difference between the inside and the outside, and being orderly and childish. For example, juniors cannot call their names directly to the elders, otherwise they will be considered impolite, ill-advised, and disrespectful. The elders can call the names of younger generation directly, and the peers can greet each other by calling their names. Another example is the traditional Chinese concept that a relative of a father is closer to the relative of a mother than a relative of a parent. Therefore, cousins ​​belong to “external parents.” Western relatives are characterized by the equality of both patrilineal and matrilineal relatives. There is no distinction between clan and clan. The term cousin that is mentioned above includes a variety of Chinese kinship terms and there are no traces of clan boundaries. In addition, Westerners can call their names regardless of their age, because they can express close relationships and show intuitively the characteristics of their respect for equality and freedom. However, with the development of the times, the lifestyle of the large family in China is now not universal, and it has gradually transformed into a small family lifestyle. This inequality has been reduced.

3.3 Sexism in Kinship Terms

The kinship terms in Chinese have the characteristics of son preference and sex discrimination. For example, a child that is born after a woman's marriage is referred to by her family as “foreigner (female)” and “foreigner (female)” and her children regard the woman’s parents as “grandfather” and “grandmother”. This also reflects the thought of preferring boys to girls. This characteristic was formed because China has been in an agricultural society for quite a long time and it needs a lot of labor. Moreover, China's clan system also needs men to continue their own blood. There are also traces of patriarchal in English. For example, many sentences use “he” to refer to anyone including men and women.

3.4 The Generalization of Family Appellations and Social appellations

The phenomenon of generalization exists in the Chinese and English kinship appellation system, which contains different cultural customs. We explore the difference between Chinese and English appellations by comparing the similarities and differences between Chinese and English appellation systems from the perspective of “people and society” which is emphasized by sociolinguistics. At the same time, to explore the hidden social, cultural and historical reasons behind a methodological discussion is conducted, through the generalization and comparison of Chinese and English kinship address nouns.

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