浅析跨文化交际中的语用失误

论文总字数：26538字

摘 要

语用失误是跨文化交际中不可避免的现象。跨文化交际中常常会遇到没有或者是误解说话者的规则和意思。有些英语学习者经常在跨文化交际中产生语用失误，也就是措辞不得体，甚至不达意。本文介绍了语用失误的含义，分析了引起语用失误的原因以及提出了一些对策，以期这些对策能够提高在跨文化交际中的语用能力。

关键词：语用失误；跨文化交际；语用能力

Contents

1. Introduction 1

2. Literature Review 1

3. Analysis of Pragmatic Failure 2

3.1 Pragmatics, pragmatic Failure, cross-cultural communication 2

3.2 Influences of pragmatic failure 3

4. Causes and Types of Pragmatic Failure 4

4.1 Causes of pragmatic failure 4

4.2 Types of pragmatic failure 6

5.Countermeasures of Pragmatic Failure 7

6. Conclusion 10

Works Cited 11

1. Introduction

When people of different cultures communicate, the first barrier is “language barrier”, especially when they don’t speak the same mother language, even if they speak the same mother language, the language barriers are still exist in many aspects, so it is common when the culture conflicts occur in the cross-cultural communication, this kind of conflicts usually reflects on the the pragmatic failure, which sometimes causing unnecessary understandings and confusions. The English linguist Thomas（1983）divided the pragmatic failure into two categories: pragmalinguistic failure and sociapragmatic failure, the former one refers to the speakers who don’t follow the native-speakers’ habit, they express the words in a wrong way, or they don’t know the right way to express, some of them even influenced by the mother language (e.g. Chinglish). The sociapragmatic refers to the speakers who don’t understand the culture of the target language which leads to the pragmatic failure. To sum up, the pragmatic failure is caused by different social and culture backgrounds. Learning a language is inseparable from its culture. When learning a foreign or second language, the learners should not only learn the imitation of the pronunciation, grammar, words and idioms, but also learn to understand the ideas, customs, and behavior of the society, In other words, the speakers need to learn about the speaker’s culture so that we can communicate in the target language properly.

This thesis analyzes the causes of pragmatic failure in the cross-cultural communication and presents some measurements in order to avoid the pragmatic failures. Then we can use the correct words or phrases and understand the correct meaning in the cross-culture communication correctly.

2. Literature Review

 Pragmatics as a new branch of linguistic science was first introduced into China in the 1980s, and in pragmatic research developed rapidly. Chinese scholars have introduced and discussed this issue raised by western philosophers and linguists like Thomas (1983), Grice (1975), Searle (1969) as well as Levinson (1986), Leech (1983), etc.. Grice develops his theory of conversational implicatures. He lists four principles of cooperative principle: quantity, quality, relation and manner. The most important cooperative principle in human communication is linguistic politeness put forward by Leech (1983). He holds that in communication, participants should follow the politeness principle of maxim, generosity maxim, modesty maxim, agreement maxim and sympathy maxim. However, different cultures have different values of politeness and have different expressions in their speech acts. These differences may lead to pragmatic failure in cross-cultural communication.

In the previous years, many Chinese scholars also contribute to the field and carry out many valuable researches. He Ziran, the professor of linguistics, researches in pragmatics and applied linguistics. He has translated and written some books on linguistic pragmatics: A survey of Pragmatics (1988), Pragmatics and English Learning (1997) Explorations of Linguistic Pragmatics (2000), and Notes on Pragmatics (2002). According to Hu Wenzhong (2002), characteristics of culture may be concluded five aspects: Culture is not biological inheritance but social legacy; Culture is not innate but something acquired through learning; Most part of culture is unconscious; Culture serves as people’s behavioral guidelines; Culture is dynamic, and its forms are related to certain historical periods.

Therefore, it is of great importance to conduct a comprehensive research in the light of intercultural communication. Thus a research on pragmatic failure is promising. This paper mainly analyzes the causes and countermeasures of pragmatic failures, which can not be found in the available works.

3. Analysis of Pragmatic Failure

3.1 Pragmatics, pragmatic failure, cross-cultural communication

Simply speaking, pragmatics is the study of relationships between symbol and its users. Pragmatic is the inability to understand what is said. It refers to the errors in our speech communication because of failing to accomplish a perfect communicative effect.

Pragmatic failure is proposed by Jenny Thomas. It is defined as “can’t understand the real meaning of words” Pragmatic failure can be divided into two kinds: pragmalinguistic failure and sociopragmatic failure (Thomas 91-112). Pragmatic failure does not refer to the performance errors in using grammar, it refers to the speakers expressing the words in improper time or situation, or the way of their expressions which are not consistent with the target language speaker’s habit, which may cause some unnecessary misunderstandings and confuses sometimes, and even may make the conversations interrupted or fail.

Thomas (1983) regarded that during the communications, if the speakers can’t make the conversations by considering the grammar, this kind of mistake will be easily discovered by listeners but can be understood, people may just think he/she “speaking badly”, but if he/she can speak a fluent English but with so many pragmatic failures in the sentences, people will think the speaker is unfriendly or less-education and to be thought as “behaving badly” or not sincere, so it is very important to avoid the pragmatic failure in the culture communications, Thomas divided the pragmatic failure into two categories: the pragmalinguistic failure and the sociapragmatic failure. The pragmalinguistic failure is one of the pragmatics, is applied to the more linguistics end of pragmatics and is closely linked with language itself, referring to the case that learners unconsciously transfer native expression into English ignoring their pragmatic meaning, or use other inappropriate expressions of the target language. The sociapragmatic which mainly refers to those failure caused by not understanding the cultural differences between each other and influencing the choice of language form. For example, in China, It is common in Chinese to give a response to thanks by saying “没关系 (mei guan xi)”, but in western countries, they will tend to use its literal English translation “It doesn’t matter” as a response to an expression of thanks in English such as” Thanks a lot”. The speaker is transferring a form in his own language to a foreign language, wrongly assuming that it performs the same communicative function. So the English expression “It doesn’t matter” is used only in declination to an apology.

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3.2 Influences of pragmatic failure

The pragmatic failure of cross-cultural communication exists in many aspects of English learning and using. In Thomas’ view, if a person makes grammatical mistakes when expressing his ideas, he will be considered “speaking badly”. However, the violation of communication principles such as the Politeness Principle will be thought as “behaving badly” or “insincere, deceitful or harboring evil intentions”. (Thomas 1983) In fact, the main cause of pragmatic failure in cross-cultural communication is that people usually influenced by their mother language or they don’t know much about the culture differences between Chinese and western nations.

Pragmatic failures are different from grammatical mistakes. They do not mean the general usage errors of language in constructing sentences, but refer to the errors of speaking at unsuitable time, or speaking with unsuitable manner or failing to keep up with the native speakers’ expressive habits, which may lead to failures to achieve the desired effect. If a person who can speak fluent English makes pragmatic mistakes in communication, the listeners will not think his language competence is not enough. Instead, they are likely to consider him unfriendly or lack of education.

Negative influence. If people don’t know the pragmatic regulation of each conversation party during the cross-cultural communication, they will be easily influenced by the “pragmatic negative transfer”, in other words, when people make the conversations by using the language’s pragmatic regulations without considering the regulations of the target language, there will be a misunderstanding and pragmatic failure. They usually lack the sensibility of social language differences and are influenced by pragmatic negative transfer subconsciously. For example, Chinese cashmere production has gained a good reputation internationally. There is a factory located in the north of China, it has exported a kind of top grade cashmere quilt. Its brand was “Shuang Yang” (双羊) which was translated into English as “goats”. However, this factory didn’t have a good sale later, because the word goat has another meaning-unpleasant old man, especially refers to one who is sexually active. Therefore no matter how excellent the quality of the cashmere is, western people won’t buy them, especially the girls and household women. There are so many examples showing that failure of communications caused by the pragmatic negative transfer. Another example, Chinese people like to say “Zou hao” (走好), “Qing man zou” (请慢走) when the customs leave, but if you translate these two sentences into English “Walk well” or “ Walk slowly” the foreigners will be confused or misunderstand, because foreigners usually say “Goodbye”/ “See you” when the custom leave.

Positive influence. Even a people who have been lived abroad for so many years, they may be influenced by their mother language sometimes. so we must realize that the pragmatic negative transfer is unavoidable. However, it only represents the differences of various culture’s expressions. Cross-cultural communication should follow a kind of equal mode, it is necessary to adapt to others appropriately. But if you always think how to acclimate others, it means your own culture will be neglected. It can’t be regarded as a successful cross-cultural communication if the speakers only pay attention to the culture of foreigners. Many conflicts happened between the conversation parties during the communication, people may have deep impressions of failure and gain some precious experiences. They’ll understand other nation’s culture after they have these unpleasant experiences. So we can see that it has an active aspect and we can regard it as a kind of catalyst in the cross-cultural communication.

4.Causes and Types of pragmatic failure

4.1 Causes of pragmatic failure

The first cause is China and western countries have different values. Chinese culture lays emphasis on collectivism while American values individualism.

In China, people trust mutually, solidarity and cooperation, when the individual interests and collective interests conflict, collective interest is always put in the first place. Westerns advocate individual freedom, individual potential, and pursuit of personal interests and personal goal. 

The next one is different countries have different social customs. Chinese people like talking about age, income, status when they chat with each other. While other countries think they have their own privacy, especially the age of women will be considered as impolite and rude behavior.

The third one is China and other western countries have different religious beliefs. Religious and cultural differences are an important part between Chinese and American. In China, Buddhism and Taoism has a history of 2000 years. Their thought is ingrained influencing on Chinese, more deeply rooted in Chinese culture. The effect on the Chinese language vocabulary is underestimated, of which a considerable part of the idiom is related to Buddhism, If these words were literally translated into English words, Americans will not understand. Similarly, as the mainstream of American religion, Christianity is deeply embedded in American culture. “God” replace the meaning of  “Buddha” in Chinese. For instance, God sends fortunate fools, and more often heard is that “God bless you”.  It is clear that there are great differences in language and culture, way of thinking, values, personality characteristics, communication patterns, religious beliefs and social customs and other aspects between China and America. In intercultural communication, both sides evaluation in the phenomenon, objects and behaviors and explanation is based on native culture. They tend to use their own cultural standards to evaluate other people"s behavior and think the values, the social norms and the social language rules of his nation or group are more real and more correct. This often causes puzzle to the communicator, can make misunderstanding and conflict, which lead to pragmatic failures in cross-cultural communication.

4.2 Types of pragmatic failure

Firstly, we use the Chinese expressions in English speaking. This is a common mistake that Chinese people usually make. For example, when a foreign friend says: “My mother is seriously ill.” Appropriate response should be: “I’m very sorry to hear that.” Chinese people may say: “Don’t worry.” If he said so, the foreign friends will think you are not care for his mother’s illness.

Secondly, we could mix up the same expressions. Sometimes, the same expressions have the same meaning, but these expressions may have different pragmatic meanings in different languages. For example, in China, it is common if we ask other’s salary, age, and marriage. People will answer us without doubt, but in western countries, they will be unhappy if you ask them these questions. They may think you are so rude of interfering their personal affairs.

Thirdly, we will have impertinent ways of greeting and farewell. In various cultures, greeting is a way to show the amity to the people who you meet. English people usually talk about weather when they meet, for example, “Sunny, isn’t it?” no matter what the weather is like at that moment, you should make a certain answer “yes”. In English, there are a dozen of greeting terms “How are you”, "How do you do”，“Good morning”, “Good afternoon”,“Good evening” and so on, but in Chinese “Ni hao” (你好) (used between acquaintances）and “Nin hao” 您好 (used between strangers or in front of elderly people) are quite enough.

When two English-speaking people meet for the first time, they would probably say "I’m glad to meet you.” The Chinese may use similar words, such as “Xing hui”(幸会) “It’s so lucky to meet you” and “Jiu yang”(久仰), but these are considered old-fashioned today. When they part, English-speaking people will say “Goodbye” or “Bye-bye” and the Chinese will say “Zai jian” (再见). In China, there are some words saying before “Zai jian”(再见) , for example, “Man zou” (慢走), “Zai zuo yi hui er” (再坐一会儿) and “Qing liu bu” (请留步). Which would sound fuuny if translated literally into English-“Walk slowly”,“stay for more time” and “Please stay here.” The westerners may feel confused.

Finally, our value differences lead to the pragmatic failure. In China people don’t pay attention to their intimacies, you can ask whatever you want. But in western country, they have strong consciousness to keep their intimacies. When you communicate with them, you’d better know what you can say or what you can’t say. For example, they don’t like to be asked about their salary, age, and marriage and they also don’t like to talk about sex, religion and politics in public.

It is wrong if one thinks that people from other cultures behave similarly to us, human communication is constrained by specific context and cultural rules. Therefore, when confronting with different people, the attitude that people take towards to them and their cultures can influence the communication. People should keep in mind in intercultural communication is that they should avoid offending others.

5. Countermeasures of pragmatic failure

Nowadays, foreign language teaching hasn’t been organized in a fully conscious and the way which can reflect English language rules and cultures. The “culture vacuum” in the foreign language teaching increases the of mother tongue when students learn a foreign language. In order to decrease the pragmatic failure in cross-cultural communication, people can focus on the following measurements to avoid the pragmatic failure in the cross-cultural communication.

The first step, we should improve the pragmatic competence. Ignorance of the promotion of pragmatic competence will turn the improvement of communicative language abilities into an empty talk. As an indispensable part of communicative language abilities, pragmatic competence plays a major role in English learning and practical use. Therefore, in order to avoid pragmatic failure in cross-cultural communication, we should do our best to improve pragmatic competence. In fact, the weak language abilities lead to pragmatic failures, not the lack of language knowledge. Those activities which include watching the original English films and television works, reading original English novels, visiting English websites, and communicating with foreigners through the internet can help us understand western culture directly. We can avoid cultural intervention effectively and improve social and cultural abilities. We should concern the practice of language in situations, enjoy more English salons and English corners and communicate with foreigners. Through the practice of language use in situations, students can improve their pragmatic competence, take a good command of English expressions and weaken the influence of mother tongue.

Then, we should apply the pragmatic strategies. When we don’t achieve communicative purpose or make errors during the communication, we can take strategies to keep up the communication. When it comes to the cultural aspect of pragmatic failure, we should treat the foreign cultures tolerantly and respect different values and thinking patterns. People should apply pragmatic strategies to solve conflicts and contradictions according to actual situations. We should not judge people’s manners simply by their own cultural standards and behavior patterns. There is an important strategy, polite pragmatic strategy. An English famous linguist Leech put forward six politeness principles: tact maxim, generosity maxim, praise maxim, modesty maxim, agreement maxim, and sympathy maxim. (Leech 55-57) Generally, these maxims are appropriate in every kind of cross-cultural communication.

The next step , we should teach the pragmatic knowledge and cultural differences, The pragmatic knowledge can be combined with grammar teaching. Many students think that all imperative sentences signify commands; all question sentences indicate questions and all present progressive sentences signify the ongoing actions. The present progressive sentence doesn’t always mean the ongoing action, and it also means the repeated actions. The pragmatic knowledge can be combined with vocabulary teaching. It’s important to combine word meaning with collocation. However, the key point of teaching is to improve students’ abilities where they can apply the vocabulary under different contexts. For example, if we ignore  a whole sentence  may have some special meaning in a given situation, it may be a habit for the students to answer a question with a whole sentence. However, it is not always suitable because sometimes a whole sentence can have a different meaning. For example:

  A:  John, have you finished your homework?         

B:  Yes, I have finished my homework. 

It will be nice if you use the simple expression “Yes, I have.” However, B uses the whole sentence here instead. As a result, it gives the hearer an impression that B is tired of answering such questions or he is getting into a temper.

Last but not least, we should develop the communicative activities and creating language environment In order to improve students’ pragmatic competence, the English teachers should organize some communicative activities to practice students’ language knowledge and pragmatic knowledge. However, people study English in China, people haven’t enough opportunities to practice English in daily life. There are many kinds of communicative activities, such as communicative games, English debates, English speech and oral report, role playing, and class discussion. The most effective one may be the role playing. Generally speaking, if the roles are more closely linked to students’ real life, they are more easily to be inspired by interests and enthusiasm. English teachers can choose some actual situations in the daily life, such as shopping, riding and seeing a doctor, etc. Parents and children, sisters and brothers, teachers and students and doctors and patients are really good roles in designing the scenes. The organizational forms can be pair work, and also can be group work according to the designed scenes. To sum up, we should let the students have more opportunities to practice their oral English in concrete situations. (高启香 83-85) .

As for students, they can read some original English literature works which are containing some western values, customs, and cultures. Reading is helpful to develop cultural awareness.

6. Conclusion

With China’s growing involvement in the global economy, many Chinese people will use English as their working language in China or work in English-speaking countries in the future and need such knowledge and awareness.

To understand and use a language appropriately, the learners should learn and master the language form. At the same time, understanding the sentence and expressing their meaning correctly is also important. In the process of speaking English, the speaker should choose the suitable words or sentences according to the context. Teachers often neglect the significance of cross-culture instruction. Instead, they often pay attention to phonological and syntactic practice. Teachers should offer students opportunities to practice conversational competence. Teachers should let them do more communicative acts and go on well with other participants in completing a task. Though it is easy to teach students some grammar elements and linguistic elements, it is more difficult to teach them how and when to use them appropriately.

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