论文总字数：33588字

摘 要

悲剧是人类戏剧史上独树一帜的非物质文化。中西方悲剧都通过描写人物、发展冲突来反映生活哲理。然而，因为中西方戏剧存在着差异，使得在人物刻画上也不尽相同，因此所表达的价值观和理念也不同。本文以《哈姆雷特》和《赵氏孤儿》为例，透过剧中的人物性格、悲剧命运、矛盾冲突及悲剧精神的对比分析来说明中英悲剧特点的差异。通过本文以期帮助英语学习者理解英语戏剧作品，提高自身英语文学修养。

关键字：悲剧特点；悲剧精神；人物；冲突

Contents

1. Introduction 1

1.1 The significance of the study 1

1.2 The Organization of the Study 2

2. Literature review 2

2.1 A Brief History of Chinese and English Drama 2

2.2 Characteristics of Tragedy 3

3. Comparison of the Tragedy Characteristics between Chinese and English Drama 5

3.1 Comparison of Tragedy Spirit between Chinese and English Drama 5

3. 2 Comparison of the Tragedy Characters between Chinese and English Drama 6

3.3 Comparison of Tragedy Ending between Chinese and English Drama 7

3.4 Comparison of Tragedy Conflict between Chinese and English Drama 8

4. Comparative Analysis of Characteristics in Hamlet and Chinese Orphan 9

4.1 Tragedy Spirit in Hamlet and Chinese Orphan 9

4.2 Characters in Hamlet and Chinese Orphan 10

4.3 Tragedy Ending in Hamlet and Chinese Orphan 11

4.4 Tragedy Conflict in Hamlet and Chinese Orphan 12

5. Conclusion 13

Works Cited 14

1. Introduction

Drama is actually a popular art. It refers to the art of stage performance, movement, dance, music, puppetry and other forms, in order to achieve the purpose of narration. Drama uses the resources of the theater to show human actions in a way that people gain deeper understanding of human experience. After thousands of years of cultural accumulation, and the tragedy is the permanent theme of drama. Compared with comedy, tragedy has a greater impact on people. People, living in a mixed society, experience various joys and sorrows of life, and also they have a different understanding of life. When people appreciate the tragedy, they always can go more or less into it, and will emotionally fit it.

The tragedy destroys the good things or tears good things apart, which will bring people tears and sighs. Inspired by the tragedy, they will have more confidence to understand the difficulties, to face them, to resolve them, and eventually conquer them. (Zou Hong, 2001: 3)

1.1 The significance of the study

Different cultures have generated different dramatic forms, and they often have unique traditions. For example, eastern and English drama are quite different because of their different social, cultural and religious background, and as well as the expression of emotion.

Domestic and foreign scholars have detailed their research on Chinese and English drama, such as Charles Lewis Arlington and Harnold Action’s Famous Chinese Plays, Dong Jian and Ma Junshan’s Drama: Fifteen Lectures, in which they researched the development of Chinese and English drama. However, few have done any research on the comparison between Hamlet and Chinese Orphan. Shakespeare’s Hamlet and Chinese ancient drama Chinese Orphan both are the representatives of tragedy. Herein the research is carried out to analyze and explore the differences in tragic characteristics between English and Chinese tragedy. It may help people understand the cultural significance of the drama in the field of literature or even the society. For English learners, understanding the differences between Chinese and English drama can also enhance the level of their English attainments.

1.2 The Organization of the Study

The main part of this paper is the comparative analysis of tragedy. Firstly it will briefly introduce what drama is, why people should understand drama. In the following section it reviews the history of Chinese and English drama briefly, and the major characteristics of drama. The third section is comparison of tragic characteristics between Chinese and English drama. They bring the audience different experience and feelings. The fourth part in this paper is the main part. This section is the expansion and extension of the third part. It illustrates the differences by comparing Hamlet and Chinese Orphan in the four aspects: the spirit of tragedy, ending, conflict and the characters. Different characters will result in different tragic outcome. The fifth part makes a conclusion of the above.

2. Literature review

2.1 A Brief History of Chinese and English Drama

For Chinese drama, it contains the primitive flavor, which means it has the existence of gods in ancient China, with the primitive hunting practice and respect to God. The word “drama” appeared for the first time in the ancient China in Du Mu’s poem. It showed Chinese ancient drama in the embryonic stage. Then it experienced the evolution throughout several dynasties. In the thirteenth century, when Chinese drama and novel era came, people’s interest in drama finally awakened. The consciousness of drama formed dramatic views. Oriental drama was rich in entertainment. It reflected real life in the lyric style. It had not risen to the forefront of the times, but expressed personal feelings. There were a lot of dramas that reflect the love theme of gifted scholars and beautiful ladies and the story of the national hero.

Chinese classical drama has not embarked on the road of realism. It seems similar to body performance art, which focuses on the beauty of the performance. In Song and Yuan dynasty, “singing”, “speaking”, “acting”, and “acrobatic fighting”, beautiful costume and setting finally have formed into a complete set of drama language. From Ming Dynasty to the middle of the Qing dynasty, it had reached to the legendary peak. The story always circled around gifted scholars and beautiful ladies, so it almost followed the same pattern in which there was a reunion ending. Fortunately, with the rising of local operas in eighteenth century, the theme of Chinese drama has become widespread. The content is more diverse, and has also produced many styles especially in singing and music. There are different factions. However, there always are restrictive principles set for classical opera.

In the west, drama is the reflection of real life. It is from life, and reflects life. It must be real. In essence, it must reproduce the original life. Therefore, true and self-essence are the principle that English drama must comply with.

Western drama is a kind of “opera”; it uses the form of poetry to show emotions, to promote the development of the plot and characters’ destiny. English drama development originated from the Greek festival. In ancient Greece, English drama evolved slowly. Until the Renaissance, in the capitalist society, there came a great playwright -- Shakespeare. Shakespeare wrote many outstanding dramas. He was a recognized drama master in the world and created the peak of English drama. In his plays, the humanistic care is totally different from what was expressed in the ancient Greek drama. In God’s words, let people master their own fate. The English drama focuses on the reproduction and imitation of the external objective world.

2.2 Characteristics of Tragedy

Tragedy is an important concept of aesthetics, which is synonymous with not only sorrow, failure, but grief or death. Tragedy is the process of transforming nature and society, including social practices. It is bound to go through setbacks and tribulations. It witnesses human pursue freedom. There are four types of tragedies, fate tragedy, social tragedy, personality tragedy and history tragedy.  Tragedy has important position in the drama history. It can ease the pressure and purify human souls. It also has the social education and warning function. Tragedy often forces people to take ethical attitude seriously. It has a potential tragedy beauty as the object of aesthetics to enhance the audience’s aesthetic pleasure.

Generally speaking, there are four main characteristics of tragedy, tragedy spirit, characters, ending and conflict by previous Research findings.

What tragedy conveys to people is, in fact, not pessimism but optimism.（Liu Kaihui, 2000: 35）Tragedy shows people the tragic ending of hero to convey potential value. It means tragedy does not just display crushing defeat, but brings to people bitter aftertaste of the fight. Tragedy spirit is the dramatic performance of life truth. The tragic spirit reflects the people facing up to attitude of truth and fate. Tragedy spirit is inseparable from the tragedy consciousness. In ancient China and ancient Greek, tragic consciousness was generated among the conflicts between the ideal and the reality, the limited and the unlimited. Human beings wished to survive，so they fight against outside powers. They produced some consciousness of suspecting and fighting against unknown strengths. They insisted that Destiny is not to be deprived. So in tragedy, it exhibited the spirit of the strong desire to survive, and the spirit of daring to struggle against the law of nature. It showed the human courage and the awareness of death. There is a diversity of spiritual consciousness reflected in tragedy, such as self-sacrifice, self-criticism, martyr, fighting against the fate bravely and so on.

Tragedy characters are the soul of a drama; it is the drama carrier. Drama has no vitality without figures. The audience cannot get into it without characters. Actually, the most splendid part in a drama is lead roles’ mental activities and speeches. The playwrights only express feelings through characters’ personality and psychological changes. Tragedy characters have several types, struggling against the loss, following the beaten track, being infirm and hesitating, struggling lonely and so on. A man could be cautious or insidious. A woman could be gossipy and pitiful. Those can be reflected in character description.

The ending of the tragedy is the aesthetic focus. The tragedy is the result of the final battle and all kinds of conflict. The ending indicates that all contradictions are upgrading to fervorization, and vicious outcome slammed audience’s mind. The audience can not keep calm in a long time. Tragic ending for people’s aesthetic enjoyment is the most concentrated, the strongest, most durable in the whole drama.（Ji Weining, 2000: 6）

3. Comparison of the Tragedy Characteristics between Chinese and English Drama

The theatre has two big systems in the world. One is Chinese drama and the other English drama. They both have their own aesthetics and appreciation value. The tragedy is one part, which has unique influence. But Chinese and English tragedy do have the same points and different points. This chapter will discuss similarities and differences between the Chinese and English tragedy.

The same point is the Chinese and English tragedy all originated among the people, and they had close relation to religion. Oriental drama’s myth elements are from the religious tradition. English drama was originally used in religious ceremonies, which highlights the dominant position of the tragedy. Heroes in the Chinese and English tragedy both have to go through tragic experience. The whole drama revolves around the protagonist, with actors and actresses creating and rendering the atmosphere of tragedy, but the most important is the spirit. Chinese and English tragedy spirit both reflects the human morality. Certainly there are differences in tragedy characteristics between Chinese and English tragedy. They primarily lie in the following four aspects.

The reason why there are many differences is due to the cultural differences. The western society is advocating individuality and freedom, adventure and pioneering spirit, criticism and self denial. Correspondingly, English tragedy is the reflection of their heroism, suspicion and critique. However, Chinese culture is conservative, and its philosophy is the Doctrine of the Mean. Therefore, Chinese tragedy advocates tolerance, they think personal tragedy was only fate; they are lack of fighting spirit.

3.1 Comparison of Tragedy Spirit between Chinese and English Drama

What tragedy tells to people is the character’s tragic story or experience. But in fact, what tragedy conveys to us is not pessimism; it is the optimism on contrary.（Liu Kaihui, 2000:35）People have tragic spirit through the changing world. (Wang Furen, 2001:114) Tragedy spirit is the spirit of struggle and sacrifice, fighting against the fate in order to achieve a certain value. Therefore, tragedy spirit is the strong desire to survive, and the spirit of daring to struggle against the law of nature. It showed the human courage and the awareness of death.

English drama was originated from the ancient Greek sacrifice ceremony, much as a tribute to the personal heroism and the valiant record of heroes, telling the story of a hero. In the middle age, the drama possessed religious features, as part of a religious ritual. Most of English tragedy is the description of the mental and physical activities of heroes. It carries the westerners’ destiny that people can be destroyed, but can’t be defeated. In English culture, tragedy spirit is “tough guy” spirit. It means even they know there will be dangerous things ahead them, but they still fight against those; they are of afraid of failure. Even they know there will be a failure; they rose to meet them without hesitate.

However, China tragedy goes along with ordinary people’s passions. Through the description of nobodies, it exhibits their life attitude and ways of handling things. They lack the spirit of doubt and criticism always on pursuit of a happy illusion, which is seemingly successful, but filled with people’s sadness and tears. This is like opium, paralyzing people at the bottom and erasing people’s desire for progress.

3.2 Comparison of the Tragedy Characters between Chinese and English Drama

As to the tragedy characters, Chinese tragedy characters are in stark contrast to the English ones. In Chinese classical dramas, the leads are nobodies at the bottom of the society, who are gentle, weak, battered. They are the representative of the weakness, such as Li Xiangjun of “Peach Blossom Fan”, Qin Xingjian and so on. The bitterer the image, the tragedy is more impressive. The audience enjoys the beauty of tragedy from the tragic ending of the characters which they feel pitiful.（Zou Hong, 2002：131）However, the English drama is all about heroes. Heroic characters always have misfortune and negative identities, such as Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Aeschylus’s Prometheus. They are tragic heroes. The English audience received resonance from the story of tragic heroes.

Ancient Chinese was a patriarchal country, in which the small-scale and self-sufficient economy was the main form of economy, so it caused most people to jump into rigid thinking, and they did not have the consciousness of self-doubt and criticism, but usually gave up personal pursuit, gave in to the misfortune, and pinned their hope on the happiness in the afterlife. For example, Wang Zhaojun in Han Gong Qiu, in order to resolve the national crisis, she had to go away from her hometown for the political marriage, and finally committed suicide by drowning herself in a river. But the west is individual oriented society. So in English tragedy, the lead characters are very distinctive, advocating individual heroism. They never compromise to the difficulties and setbacks, and they seldom pursue the individual value but fight in battles for their country or against the vicious power courageously and at any risk. For example, Shakespeare’s Hamlet aimed for revenge, even at the cost of sacrificing his friends and himself.

In English classical drama，the hero is generally a strength, male image. They dare to struggle, they are good at fighting, they represent the strong line, and its purpose is to highlight the conflicts. In the contrast with the English tragedy, Chinese classical tragedy leads are generally persecuted, weak woman with no rights. In the Chinese ancient patriarchal society, for women, patience is the quality they need to acquire, not to fight, but to endure passively, and they need to learn to take the pain as fate.

3.3 Comparison of Tragedy Ending between Chinese and English Drama

In Chinese and English drama the endings are completely on the contrary. Chinese tragedy is mostly “reunion” at the end; however, English tragedy ends in a sad ending. English dramas are mostly death endings full of misery. The so-called tragic ending is the key to the whole drama, and also it is the climax. The tragic outcome is the most intense part. The theme of Chinese dramas is mostly “reunion”, and the endings also have the decree that the wicked should be executed, justice maintained, though pregnant with sorrow. For example, in the drama The Injustice to Dou E，although Dou E died, but the three events she swore came true.

Chinese tragedy ending is hunting for a happy feeling. But English drama is not. The ending of Chinese tragedy is set to satisfy the audience for the demand of justice, while the English drama gives the audience a kind of pity and fear. So the audience enjoys the different pleasure.

The causes of the differences are rooted in the cultural differences. Chinese culture emphasizes harmony. It means the happy situation. Chinese take Confucianism as the cornerstone, and they believe in the unity of body and mind. So the sense of justice is strong in Chinese, and to some extent, Chinese are kind of perfecta paranoids. The English tragedy is also full of personal adventurism, and they regard it as a kind of belief. English drama is originated from ancient Greece, when people lived by the sea all the year. They were full of curiosity about the unknown field, and they thought it was a great adventure, so they dared to face the bad fate, and they had the courage to face the pain. The sense is so powerful. With the development of democratic politics, a hero is always ready to fight for life. In the English drama ending, the hero makes unflinching sacrifice to his belief. In contrast with the English tragedy, the tragedy ending of Chinese drama is “reunion”. It is the conflict reconciliation.

3.4 Comparison of Tragedy Conflict between Chinese and English Drama

In the field of drama theory, there are two kinds of conflict. One is the conflict of the will against the unknown force. The second is the personality conflicts. The dramatic conflict is varied. It can be represented as the conflict between man and man, and the conflict between people and environment. The tragedy conflict is the conflict of two parties. Both refuse to give in, but insist on their own goals and maintain their ethical ideal. In order to achieve a certain goal, they are bound to harm each other, and the ending is that one wins or both lose together. （Zheng Jing,2002:26）

The plot development of English tragedy is the gradual escalation of the conflict. In English tragedy, people praise the expression of the individual wills. They rely on their own to struggle and triumph over evil. However, they often get caught, being trapped into the conflict with themselves, cannot get rid of the pain. Hamlet is a vivid example. He had responsibility to avenge for his father and recover the state, while he was plunged into confusion and panic. He was unable to make the right decisions, which eventually leads to the suffering of him and the people around him.

Chinese tragedy hero mostly have a tragic experience, the experience that is not violent but gentle, soothing conflict, possessed of the critical nature of ethics. For example, In The Injustice to Dou E, she lacked the awareness of struggle and endured everything, taking it as the fate. Throughout the plot development, she was unable to defend herself and finally she was executed, so her protests appear passive and feeble. In Chinese Orphan, the author tries to reproduce the conflict between good and evil to arouse the public’s sense of justice.

4. Comparative Analysis of Characteristics in Hamlet and Chinese Orphan

Hamlet is the representative of the great playwright Shakespeare in Renaissance. Hamlet, as a hero, the road of his revenge is full of twists and intertwined with love and hatred. Chinese Orphan is the representative of dramatist Ji Junxiang of Yuan dynasty with the reflection that people’s fighting spirit, refusing to be cowed or submit to evil forces. As to tragedy characteristics, they mainly demonstrate some differences in the aspects of tragedy spirit, characters, ending and conflict.

4.1 Tragedy Spirit in Hamlet and Chinese Orphan

The English and eastern tragic style are totally different. In the middle ages, the drama possessed religious features, as part of religious ritual. Most of English tragedy is the description of the mental effect of heroes. It carries the westerners’ heroism. However, Chinese drama is just a kind of moral judge. Through the description of vulnerable groups, it reflects the attitude of treating things. They lack the spirit of doubt and criticism. They are always in pursuit of happy illusion.

Hamlet, at the beginning, suffered a heavy blow. His father died and his mother remarried. Everything was so sudden, and he began to have doubts on his values. He yelled “Jesus Christ, Jesus Christ, all the world in my view is very abhorrent, stale, boring. Hum, hum, it is a barren garden growing with malicious weeds”.（Shakespeare, 2010:150） He started a process of meditation on life. Hamlet was in doubt of his father’s death, so when Horatio told him the ghost thing, he thought it was strange, but basically he believed. He was willing to watch the ghost, because nothing is more important than the truth. In the play, he was pushed to the forefront of the stage, and the mission of revenge did not suit him but he had to do. He encountered a bunch of difficulties, but he never retreated. On the contrary, he stood firm from beginning to end. Furthermore, Hamlet uncovered the truth, and fulfilled revenge on his own, which embodies a kind of personal heroism.

In Chinese Orphan, Cheng Ying sacrificed his son to express a debt of gratitude for Zhao and save the orphan, and later became follower of the murderer. Lurking at the murderer’s home for around 20 years, he was sustained by the thought of revenges. At the end of the drama, the orphan revenged the Zhao family and Cheng’s. Actually, Chinese Orphan advocates the classic Chinese tragedy spirit, enduring hardship, and enduring humiliation to carry out an important task.

In short, English tragedy spirits contain fighting, fighting against the unknown strength, and never retreating. However, Chinese tragedy spirit mainly contains endurance and bearings. This kind of spirit has been continuing for centuries.

4.2 Characters in Hamlet and Chinese Orphan

English and Chinese tragedy roles are not the same, because of their different cultural traditions, national psychology and aesthetic taste. In English tragedy, the lead role is the hero. The leads in western tragedy often have good and great nature. However, Chinese tragedy characters are those who are good but weak. They are moral props. This is the essential difference between Chinese and English tragic figures. 

Hamlet was the prince of Denmark, who wanted to avenge for his father. His revenge road is full of twists, and he is intertwined with love and hate. He originally lived overseas. His father was murdered by his uncle, because his uncle wanted to sit on the throne. After the prince returned home, he knew the sequence of events, and he plunged into a loss, so he had to avenge for his father. This is the start of tragedy. But his revenge road is full of twists. he felt betrayed by people around him, then he began to be skeptical of the whole world. He said: “honest man now! no one in ten thousand!”. (Shakespeare, 2010: 230)He always thought of rectifying the royal family, and he has the responsibility to rectify the country, and it must be done by him, he did not want to resort to violence. From beginning to end he was fighting alone, thus he died with regret. In his encounter with the ghost, he was more confused. He could take the opportunity to kill the enemy, he could have changed this situation, but he hesitated, he wanted to let fate decide enemies’ fate. He had a chance to kill his uncle. However due to his hesitation, he failed. His hesitation and weakness resulted in his friend’s death, also led to the death to his lover. He was a philosopher rather than an executer. He is good at thinking not to move. At the end of the court battle, the prince was stabbed by his uncle’s helper, and the queen died from drinking poisoned wine. Hamlet killed his uncle in the end. The revenge was difficult mainly because he was irresolute, moody, hesitant and always melancholy.

In Chinese Orphan, Cheng Ying was loyal to Zhao’s family and justice, but he was also a small figure with low voice, helpless and weak. When Zhao’s family encountered slaughter, he asked Zhao Dun to take his family away. After the orphan was entrusted to him, he decided to exchange babies. When his wife and child were killed, he joined the enemy. His heart was filled with pain and suffering. He cannot wait to kill the murderer. But in order to bring up orphan, he was forced to live. And he had to, because he had a responsibility of raising the orphan. He is typical of the Chinese tragedy lead, kind but weak, which endures a lot and finally get rewarded with the help of others or the heaven.

In short the characters are different: Hamlet is of the characteristics of complexity and diversity, but Cheng’s personality is distinct and simple.

4.3 Tragedy Ending in Hamlet and Chinese Orphan

Hamlet and Chinese Orphan are both tragedy, but the outcomes are not always the same. Like most Chinese dramas, the orphan’s revenge was a victory; the ending cheers the people greatly. Cheng Ying sacrificed his own children to bear bitter hardships, and raised him for 20 years. After Cheng Ying told him everything, the orphan avenged for his father. Then justice overcame evil. The Chinese ancient drama is a happy ending. The whole Chinese classical drama is almost in the same pattern. Justice must be achieved, and the transgressors have to be punished, suffer from ethical criticism of nature. The “reunion” pattern has influenced the development of Chinese drama.

Unlike the orphan’s ending, Hamlet is full of tragic plots. Hamlet’s revenge road is very difficult with full of twists. Although Hamlet killed the murderer in the end, his mission is not completed totally because of his weakness. So the outcome looks tragic. Unlike China drama, it destroyed both good and evil. As a hero, he only can use his own life in exchange of the victory.

Chinese Orphan’s ending is all about “reunion”, but Hamlet is just a tragic ending. Zhao’s outcome is tragic climax, while Hamlet’s is much heart-shocking. The ending of Chinese drama, can finally let a person feel happiness and joy. Justice is reserved. We can draw a conclusion the two dramas show us same revenge, but they were different tragic stories.

4.4 Tragedy Conflict in Hamlet and Chinese Orphan

The conflict of the tragedy is the protagonists struggle against a power they can’t take control. The contradiction in English tragedy mainly reveals that people fight against some strength they do not know. But Chinese tragic conflict is concerned with ethics and critical nature. It focuses on the show of the suffering conflict course.（Zhang Wanchun, 2003:31）In Chinese drama, heroes are oppressed by bitter situation in order to win the audience’s sympathy, while in English drama, heroes live for struggle to let the audience feel heroism. The conflicts between Hamlet and Chinese orphan are same in a way. They both have the purpose of revenge.

In Hamlet, the objective of his struggle is his own weakness and hesitation. That is, the biggest conflict is that between him and himself. Many contradictions in his characteristics are another important cause of the conflict.（Zheng Jing, 2003:26）At the beginning of the drama, Hamlet knew that his father was murdered, and he fell into a deep depression. This is the beginning of drama conflict. Hamlet was talented, but the reality hit him, and made him doubt the world and get confused. He had to bear such a blow of feelings. He melancholy said “frailty, your name is woman.” (Shakespeare, 2010:123) Hamlet’s characteristics resulted in violent clashes. He had no real right, but the new king, his uncle had the imperial strength. His identity was questioned by the Danish royal family at the same time. The conflict between Hamlet and his uncle escalated, and it eventually led to his tragic end - destruction.

However, the Chinese tragedy conflict is mainly between good and evil, the week and the strong. Tu Angu killed Zhao’s 300 people, but loyal Cheng Ying was at the expense of his child to protect the orphan. Cheng Ying is nobody, while Tu was the general. Cheng managed to survive the orphan from Tu’s slaughter. When orphan grew up, knowing everything, he avenged for his father. It is a story of revenge objectively. But it is moral criticism actually. Tu’s cruel behavior will lead to a brutal fighting between him and Cheng Ying, together with the orphan.

5. Conclusion

Chinese and English dramas are different because of the two nations’ different cultural backgrounds. This paper discusses the characteristics of English and Chinese tragedy, especially from the aspects of the characters of tragedy, namely, the tragedy conflict, character, spirit and ending. They are emphatically illustrated by famous English drama Hamlet and the Chinese drama Chinese orphan. In the comparative analysis, it shows that English dramas are intense and stimulating, while Chinese classical drama is soft and mellow. English tragedy pays attention to process, while Chinese drama aims for ending. It then draws the conclusion that different forms of tragedy have different outcomes. But they have the common spiritual sustenance. The good and evil should be treated differently. The analysis of the comparison aims to make people understand the cultural significance of the drama. The research may help people understand the drama cultural connotation, and as well as what the Chinese and English tragedies truly bring to people. At same time, it also provides a unique cultural perspective of Chinese and English culture for English lovers. For English learner, it can also enhance the level of the learners’ attainment in English literature.

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